Glossary

Technical terms, plainly

Definitions for all auto-linked terms across the platform. Letters jump to the section.

Agonist agonistic · full agonist · partial agonist Mechanism: Substance that activates a receptor, thereby mimicking or augmenting the action of the endogenous ligand.
Angiogenesis angiogenic · neovascularisation · neovascularization Mechanism: Formation of new blood vessels from existing ones. A key process in wound healing, tissue growth and tumour biology.

Bioavailability bioavailable Pharmacology: Proportion of an administered substance that reaches systemic circulation unchanged. Particularly dependent on route of administration and digestive stability for peptide substances.
Blinding double-blind · blinded Study endpoint: Procedure in which participants and/or researchers do not know who receives treatment or placebo. Reduces expectation bias.

Cochrane review Cochrane Study endpoint: Systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration using standardised methodology for literature search, study appraisal and optional meta-analysis. Considered the methodological gold standard for evidence synthesis.
Compounding compounding pharmacy Regulatory: Individual preparation of a medicinal product in a pharmacy, distinct from an industrially approved product. Subject to its own regulatory rules.

Diarrhoea diarrhea Study endpoint: Increased stool frequency (>3 per day) with reduced consistency. Most frequent gastrointestinal adverse event of all GLP-1 receptor agonists, usually mild and dose-dependent.

Endpoint primary endpoint · secondary endpoint Study endpoint: Pre-specified outcome measure of a study. The primary endpoint determines statistical power; secondary endpoints are exploratory.

GHRH Growth-hormone-releasing hormone Mechanism: Hypothalamic peptide that stimulates growth-hormone secretion from the pituitary gland.
GLP-1 Glucagon-like peptide-1 Mechanism: Incretin hormone released in the gut after food intake. Glucose-dependently stimulates insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon and delays gastric emptying.
Glucose blood sugar · dextrose Mechanism: Monosaccharide (C₆H₁₂O₆), the central energy carrier of the body. Taken up into cells via insulin and released from the liver under glucagon action. Blood glucose concentration is the key parameter for diabetes diagnostics and management.

Half-life t½ · elimination half-life Pharmacology: Time during which the concentration of an active substance in the body falls to half. A modelling assumption — real-world pharmacokinetics can be more complex.
HbA1c glycated haemoglobin Study endpoint: Glycated haemoglobin — marker of average blood-glucose levels over the past 8–12 weeks. Key endpoint in diabetes studies.
Hepatitis liver inflammation Study endpoint: Inflammation of the liver due to viruses (A-E), alcohol, medication, autoimmunity or other causes. Chronic hepatitis C is an indication adjunctively studied with thymalin in Russian trials.
Hyperglycaemia hyperglycemia · high blood sugar Study endpoint: State of too high blood glucose, by definition fasting ≥126 mg/dL or ≥7.0 mmol/L. Chronic hyperglycaemia is the defining feature of diabetes mellitus.
Hypoglycaemia hypoglycemia · low blood sugar Study endpoint: State of too low blood glucose (<70 mg/dL or <3.9 mmol/L). Clinically relevant as an adverse event of many antidiabetic therapies — GLP-1 analogs rarely trigger it due to their glucose-dependent mechanism.
Hypothalamus hypothalamic Mechanism: Region in the diencephalon controlling the pituitary via releasing and inhibiting hormones (GHRH, TRH, GnRH, somatostatin, dopamine, CRH). Also a central regulatory centre for appetite, temperature and sleep-wake rhythm.

IGF-1 Insulin-like growth factor 1 Mechanism: Growth factor whose level is regulated by growth hormone. Often used as a surrogate marker for GH activity.
In vitro cell culture Study endpoint: "In glass" — experiment outside a living organism, usually in cell culture. Findings do not automatically transfer to humans.
In vivo Study endpoint: "In the living" — experiment in a living organism, typically animal or human.

Lyophilisate lyophilized · lyophilised · freeze-dried Technical: Freeze-drying product in which water has been removed by sublimation under vacuum. A stable storage form for many peptides.

Off-label off-label use Regulatory: Use of an approved medicinal product outside its approved indication, dose or patient population.
Osteoporosis bone loss Study endpoint: Condition of reduced bone density and disturbed micro-architecture leading to increased fracture risk. Key therapy lines: bisphosphonates, denosumab, teriparatide, romosozumab; historically also salmon calcitonin.

Pancreas pancreatic Mechanism: Organ with exocrine (digestive enzymes) and endocrine function (insulin from β-cells, glucagon from α-cells, somatostatin from δ-cells). Central role in glucose homeostasis.
Pancreatitis pancreas inflammation Study endpoint: Inflammation of the pancreas, acute or chronic. Acute pancreatitis is a potential adverse event of all GLP-1 receptor agonists and is listed as a warning on the label — causality remains debated.
Pharmacodynamics PD · pharmacodynamic Pharmacology: What a substance does to the body: mechanism of action, effect size, dose-response.
Pharmacokinetics PK · pharmacokinetic Pharmacology: What the body does to a substance: absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion.
Pituitary gland pituitary Mechanism: Hormone gland at the base of the brain with anterior lobe (adenohypophysis: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, prolactin) and posterior lobe (neurohypophysis: oxytocin, vasopressin). Controls superordinate endocrine axes.
Placebo effect placebo Study endpoint: Improvement in subjective or measurable endpoints due to expectation of effect, independent of the actual substance.
Preclinical Study endpoint: Studies before clinical use in humans — usually in vitro or in animal models.
Prostate cancer prostate carcinoma Study endpoint: Most common malignant tumour in men. Hormone-sensitive subtypes respond to androgen deprivation therapy — including GnRH agonists (leuprolide, goserelin, triptorelin) or GnRH antagonists (degarelix, relugolix).

RCT Randomised controlled trial · Randomized controlled trial Study endpoint: Gold standard of clinical research. Participants are randomly allocated to treatment and control groups; ideally blinded.
Receptor receptors Mechanism: Protein to which a signalling molecule (e.g. hormone or peptide) binds, triggering a cellular response.
Reconstitution reconstitute Technical: Dissolving a dry (lyophilised) substance in a liquid to obtain a ready-to-use solution.

Signalling pathway signaling pathway · signaling pathways Mechanism: Cascade of molecular events through which a signal is transduced from the cell surface to a cellular response.

WADA World Anti-Doping Agency Regulatory: International organisation coordinating anti-doping rules in sport and publishing the annual Prohibited List.

Glossary

Technical terms, plainly

Definitions for all auto-linked terms across the platform. Letters jump to the section.

Agonist agonistic · full agonist · partial agonist Mechanism: Substance that activates a receptor, thereby mimicking or augmenting the action of the endogenous ligand.
Angiogenesis angiogenic · neovascularisation · neovascularization Mechanism: Formation of new blood vessels from existing ones. A key process in wound healing, tissue growth and tumour biology.

Bioavailability bioavailable Pharmacology: Proportion of an administered substance that reaches systemic circulation unchanged. Particularly dependent on route of administration and digestive stability for peptide substances.
Blinding double-blind · blinded Study endpoint: Procedure in which participants and/or researchers do not know who receives treatment or placebo. Reduces expectation bias.

Cochrane review Cochrane Study endpoint: Systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration using standardised methodology for literature search, study appraisal and optional meta-analysis. Considered the methodological gold standard for evidence synthesis.
Compounding compounding pharmacy Regulatory: Individual preparation of a medicinal product in a pharmacy, distinct from an industrially approved product. Subject to its own regulatory rules.

Diarrhoea diarrhea Study endpoint: Increased stool frequency (>3 per day) with reduced consistency. Most frequent gastrointestinal adverse event of all GLP-1 receptor agonists, usually mild and dose-dependent.

Endpoint primary endpoint · secondary endpoint Study endpoint: Pre-specified outcome measure of a study. The primary endpoint determines statistical power; secondary endpoints are exploratory.

GHRH Growth-hormone-releasing hormone Mechanism: Hypothalamic peptide that stimulates growth-hormone secretion from the pituitary gland.
GLP-1 Glucagon-like peptide-1 Mechanism: Incretin hormone released in the gut after food intake. Glucose-dependently stimulates insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon and delays gastric emptying.
Glucose blood sugar · dextrose Mechanism: Monosaccharide (C₆H₁₂O₆), the central energy carrier of the body. Taken up into cells via insulin and released from the liver under glucagon action. Blood glucose concentration is the key parameter for diabetes diagnostics and management.

Half-life t½ · elimination half-life Pharmacology: Time during which the concentration of an active substance in the body falls to half. A modelling assumption — real-world pharmacokinetics can be more complex.
HbA1c glycated haemoglobin Study endpoint: Glycated haemoglobin — marker of average blood-glucose levels over the past 8–12 weeks. Key endpoint in diabetes studies.
Hepatitis liver inflammation Study endpoint: Inflammation of the liver due to viruses (A-E), alcohol, medication, autoimmunity or other causes. Chronic hepatitis C is an indication adjunctively studied with thymalin in Russian trials.
Hyperglycaemia hyperglycemia · high blood sugar Study endpoint: State of too high blood glucose, by definition fasting ≥126 mg/dL or ≥7.0 mmol/L. Chronic hyperglycaemia is the defining feature of diabetes mellitus.
Hypoglycaemia hypoglycemia · low blood sugar Study endpoint: State of too low blood glucose (<70 mg/dL or <3.9 mmol/L). Clinically relevant as an adverse event of many antidiabetic therapies — GLP-1 analogs rarely trigger it due to their glucose-dependent mechanism.
Hypothalamus hypothalamic Mechanism: Region in the diencephalon controlling the pituitary via releasing and inhibiting hormones (GHRH, TRH, GnRH, somatostatin, dopamine, CRH). Also a central regulatory centre for appetite, temperature and sleep-wake rhythm.

IGF-1 Insulin-like growth factor 1 Mechanism: Growth factor whose level is regulated by growth hormone. Often used as a surrogate marker for GH activity.
In vitro cell culture Study endpoint: "In glass" — experiment outside a living organism, usually in cell culture. Findings do not automatically transfer to humans.
In vivo Study endpoint: "In the living" — experiment in a living organism, typically animal or human.

Lyophilisate lyophilized · lyophilised · freeze-dried Technical: Freeze-drying product in which water has been removed by sublimation under vacuum. A stable storage form for many peptides.

Off-label off-label use Regulatory: Use of an approved medicinal product outside its approved indication, dose or patient population.
Osteoporosis bone loss Study endpoint: Condition of reduced bone density and disturbed micro-architecture leading to increased fracture risk. Key therapy lines: bisphosphonates, denosumab, teriparatide, romosozumab; historically also salmon calcitonin.

Pancreas pancreatic Mechanism: Organ with exocrine (digestive enzymes) and endocrine function (insulin from β-cells, glucagon from α-cells, somatostatin from δ-cells). Central role in glucose homeostasis.
Pancreatitis pancreas inflammation Study endpoint: Inflammation of the pancreas, acute or chronic. Acute pancreatitis is a potential adverse event of all GLP-1 receptor agonists and is listed as a warning on the label — causality remains debated.
Pharmacodynamics PD · pharmacodynamic Pharmacology: What a substance does to the body: mechanism of action, effect size, dose-response.
Pharmacokinetics PK · pharmacokinetic Pharmacology: What the body does to a substance: absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion.
Pituitary gland pituitary Mechanism: Hormone gland at the base of the brain with anterior lobe (adenohypophysis: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, prolactin) and posterior lobe (neurohypophysis: oxytocin, vasopressin). Controls superordinate endocrine axes.
Placebo effect placebo Study endpoint: Improvement in subjective or measurable endpoints due to expectation of effect, independent of the actual substance.
Preclinical Study endpoint: Studies before clinical use in humans — usually in vitro or in animal models.
Prostate cancer prostate carcinoma Study endpoint: Most common malignant tumour in men. Hormone-sensitive subtypes respond to androgen deprivation therapy — including GnRH agonists (leuprolide, goserelin, triptorelin) or GnRH antagonists (degarelix, relugolix).

RCT Randomised controlled trial · Randomized controlled trial Study endpoint: Gold standard of clinical research. Participants are randomly allocated to treatment and control groups; ideally blinded.
Receptor receptors Mechanism: Protein to which a signalling molecule (e.g. hormone or peptide) binds, triggering a cellular response.
Reconstitution reconstitute Technical: Dissolving a dry (lyophilised) substance in a liquid to obtain a ready-to-use solution.

Signalling pathway signaling pathway · signaling pathways Mechanism: Cascade of molecular events through which a signal is transduced from the cell surface to a cellular response.

WADA World Anti-Doping Agency Regulatory: International organisation coordinating anti-doping rules in sport and publishing the annual Prohibited List.